Unit 4.- Rise of Modern Monarchies: the Hispanic Empire, Absolutism in England and in France.
Lesson 1.- The rise of the Spanish Empire: Charles V
1.- Charles V, personal background.
In 1516, Charles I became the king of Spain. He would become Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles was born in Ghent (Gante) a Flemish city. He was the son of Philip I of Castile (Philip the handsome) and Juana of Castile (Joanna the Mad of Castile). His paternal grandparents were the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I and his wife, Mary of Burgundy. His maternal grandparents were Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs.
After his father’s death, he inherited the possessions of the German Habsburgs and the House of Burgundy: the Low Countries, the Franche-Comté (Franco Condado), and Flanders. As his mother was insane, after his grandparent death, he inherited the Crown of Castile which included the Americans possessions and the Crown of Aragon which consisted of Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. With this heritage, Charles built a hugest empire, known as the Hispanic Empire. Charles was born and educated in Ghent, so the culture and courtly life of the Low Countries were an important influence in his early life. When, in 1516, he was proclaimed king of Castile and of Aragon jointly with her mother, he couldn’t speak Spanish. Charles arrived to Spain in 1517.
2.- The Revolt of the Comuneros: When Charles came to Spain, he brought many Flemish noblemen with him and gave them the most important government posts. This angered Castilians noblemen. When, in 1519, his grandparent Maximilian died, Charles became a natural candidate to the Holy Roman Crown. As he wanted to be emperor, he spent large amounts of Castilian money to bribe the electors and travelled to the empire to be elected. He left his Flamish noblemen to rule Castile and Aragon. This situation angered both Castilian cities and Castilian nobles. The cities were annoyed about the new taxes which the urban bourgeoisie had to pay (to bribe the electors). The nobles were annoyed because the king gave the most important government positions to foreigners. The cities, called “comunidades de villa y tierra”, started the Revolt of the Comuneros, and were initially supported by the nobles. The rebels were successful during the first months of the revolt. However, the king later came to an agreement with the Castilian nobles, and together they fought the rebels. The last battle was fought in Villalar (Valladolid) in 1521, and the king was victorious. The leaders of the revolt, Juan de Padilla, Juan Bravo and Francisco Maldonado, were executed. However, the revolt led to a change in Charles V approach to his kingdom. He paid more attention to Castile. He appointed Castilian nobles to the highest government posts. And also spent more time there. Castilebecame integrated into the empire and would provide the bulk of the empire’s military and financial resources. Charle`s created different Councils (Consejos) which advised the king on matters of Government. The most important was the Council of State but there were also a Council of Italy and a Council of Aragon. 3.- Charles´ V Empire The empire of Charles V was made up of many different territories, with their own laws and institutions. Although Charles V did not have absolute power (decisions about taxes needed the approval of the Parliaments of each kingdom), the power of Spanish monarchs increased. The court was itinerant, and the king travelled in person to problem territories. Each territory had a viceroy or governor, who ruled in the king’s name. There was also a court in each territory to administer justice. Most of the emperor’s revenue came from taxes, specially from Castile. But taxes alone were not enough to finance his policies, and the emperor had to ask for loans. Charles´ V idea of empire was to build a strong empire united by catholic religion. That’s why, during his forty year reign Charles became entangled in many wars: a.France: was his main rival for supremacy in Europe. Both countries were at war during Charles´ V reign. b. The Ottoman Turks: were constant threats in the Mediterranean and along the eastern boundary of the Holy Roman Empire. c.German Protestant princes: Charles tried to stop the expansion of Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire. German princes used Lutheranism as a way to weaken the emperor’s power. Finally, the Treaty of Augsburg agreed that each prince had a right to choose the religion of his people.
5.- America: During Charles´ V reign, the territories in America were considerably extended by conquistadors like Hernan Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who conquest the Aztec and Inca empires. Combined with the Magellan expedition’s circumnavigation of the globe in 1522, these successes provide the state treasury with enormous amounts of bullions. The emperor treated America as an extension of Spain, and applied the same laws. Indians were considered Spanish citizens and the emperor also convened a conference at Valladolid to review the morality of the force used against the indigenous populations in which the use of excessive violence was forbidden. He also created the Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias) which advised the king on matters of government. And the Casa de Contratacion which was in charge of trade with America. The conquered territories were divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain in which a Viceroy ruled in the name of the emperor and the Viceroyalty of Peru, with his own viceroy.
Lesson 2.- The rise of the Hispanic Monarchy: Philip II.
1.- Philip’s II personal background:
In 1556, Charles V abdicated dividing his possessions: the Holy Roman Empire went to his brother, Ferdinand, and the Spanish possessions, the territories in Spain, America, Italy and Flanders to his son, Phillip II.
The empire of Phillip II was the most powerful of his time. It consisted of Spain, the Low Countries, a large part of Italy and other territories in Central Europe, plus the Castilian empire in the Americas and numerous possessions in North Africa and the Far East. Phillip’s II Empire was the largest the world has ever known. Unlike his father, Charles V, king Phillip II ruled all his territories from Madrid, where he installed his court, because he considered Spain to be the centre of his monarchy, and specially Castile which still provided the bulk of the monarchy’s military and financial resources. For this reason, the reign of Phillip II is called the Hispanic Monarchy. Phillip’s policies had two main objectives: to preserve his territories and to defend Catholicism. The king was a true believer but he also considered religion as a way to unite his subjects otherwise so different. 2.- Domestic policy: As the chief defender of Catholicism, the king refused to give his subjects religious freedom and suppressed Protestantism within his kingdoms. The Inquisition acted harshly against heretics, and religious intolerance grew. This damaged relations with the Low Countries in which Calvinism had spread, especially in Northern provinces. The situation got worse after several poor harvests, the interruption of trade because of the war with England, and a raise of taxes. In 1566, the Northern provinces rebelled against Phillip II and declared their independence under the name of the United Provinces. This is called the Revolt in the Low Countries. It was a long war that lasted Eighty years. Spanish troops quickly started fighting the rebels, but before the revolt could be completely defeated, a war between England and Spain had broken out, forcing Philip’s troops to halt their advance. The rebels obtained financial support from England. By the end of Philips reign he tried to solve the problem by giving the Low Countries to his daughter Isabel Clara Eugenia. If Isabel had any descendant the Low Countries would become independent. During Phillip’s reign, the direct line of the Portuguese royal family ended when Sebastian of Portugal died. As the son of Isabella of Portugal, Phillip claim to the throne. After a short war, Phillip became king of Portugal in 1581. Thus, Philip added to his possessions a vast overseas empire in Africa, Brazil, and the East Indias. 3.- Foreign policy: Phillip II was the most powerful king of his times, but he had to face many problems: a. France: Philip inherited his father wars with France. Philip defeated the French at the start of his reign, but the conflict between the two countries started up again towards the end of his reign. b. The Turks: The Turkish Empire threatened Spanish possessions in the Mediterranean. Spain, the Pope, and Venice formed an alliance and defeated the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto. c. England: Before Charles´ V abdication, Phillip married Queen Mary of England, the older daughter of Henry VIII who, unlike his father, was a catholic. However, they had no children and Queen Mary died in 1558, before the union could revitalize the Catholic Church in England. The throne went to Elizabeth, the Protestant daughter of Henry VIII. After the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, the catholic great-niece of Henry VII and the legitimate heir to the throne for English Catholics, Philip decided to return England to Catholicism by invasion. His opportunity came when England provided support for the Low Countries revolt. King Philip sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, to lead an invasion. The fleet was lashed by severe storms. The lack of communication between the two commanders forced the army into retreat. Two more Armadas were assembled but also failed. Anyway, England was unable to take advantage of this success. English buccaneering in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain’s rebuilt navy. 5.- America: Under Philip’s II reign, expeditions in America continued. New territories were conquered and became Spanish territories. A lot of Spaniards travelled to America where they occupied the highest positions in the Indies. Criollos, the children of Spaniards in America occupied the second highest positions in society. Mestizos, the children of Spanish men and Native American Woman were not always well considered. Indians performed manual work, largely in agriculture. Negroes were in the worst situation. They were slaves brought form Africa by English, French or Dutch traders and bought by Spanish to do the hardest work. They had no rights at all. 4.- Economy:
Charles´ V wars and the policies of Philip II further burdened Spanish economy and would, in the following century, contribute to its decline. The king had to ask for loans. Inflation throughout Europe in the sixteenth century didn’t help. Due to the situation, Phillip II was forced to declare bankruptcy several times. ----
Lesson 3: Absolutism in England
1.- Henry VIII:
Henry VIII was married with Catherine of Aragon. She had not been able to give him a male heir. Of her six children, only Princess Mary lived past infancy. Henry wanted a male heir to continue his dynasty. He wanted to marry Anne Boleyn but he couldn’t convince the Pope to annul his marriage. Henry decided to bypass papal authority and he placed himself as the head of England’s Church
Henry married Anne Boleyn but had a daughter, Elizabeth. He accused Anne of adultery and beheaded her. Then, Henry married to Jane Seymour, who died shortly after giving birth to a son, Edward, A fourth marriage to Anne of Cleves, a political alliance, ended shortly by annulment. Catherine Howard, Henry’s fifth wife, was also accused of adultery and beheaded. Only his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, outlived Henry. Before dying, Henry established the line of succession. The crown was to pass first to Edward VI, then to Mary I, and finally to Elizabeth I. 2.- Edward VI: Only nine years old when he inherited the English crown in 1547, Edward VI was a sickly youngster. A council of regents was established to help him. And a lord protector was established to rule the country. During his reign, England suffered financial problems and religious problems. Unemployment, displaced populations, rising prices, and increased crime occurred. Edward VI was afflicted with tuberculosis and was going to die so the lord protector tried to claim the throne. Mary, the son of Catherine of Aragon, called together an army of supporters and after Edward’s death, was crowned queen. 3.- Mary I: Mary’s childhood had been desperately unhappy. Her parents had divorced, she was separated from her mother and persecuted in various ways for being devoutly catholic in times of Protestant domination. Mary was convinced she should restore Catholicism to England as the state religion. She also married Philip of Spain, the son of Charles V. Mary persuade Parliament to restore papal authority and began active persecution of Protestant heretics. Because of this persecution she became known as “Bloody Mary” After Queen Mary’s death in 1558, Elizabeth came to the throne. 4.- Elizabeth I: Elizabeth, Anne Boleyn’s daughter, was a well-qualified person. He inherited the throne as well as a civil war and several other problems. Elizabeth knew foreign involvement cost money, so she carefully avoided it. Elizabeth aid the Spanish Low Countries in their rebellion against he Spanish.
Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland, claimed the English throne on the grounds that Henry VIII had not been married to Elizabeth’s mother in the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church. Mary claimed her right through Henry’s sister Margaret. She also had married Francis who would become king of France. France and Spain tried to help Mary claim the English throne. But she couldn’t. Finally, Mary was beheaded for her involvement in a plot against Elizabeth’s life. Philip II of Spain sent the “Invincible Armada” to avoid English interference in the Netherlands, also as a religious crusade, and to stop English interference with America trade. The ships were destroyed by storms in the North. By defeating the Armada, England remained independent and protestant. Elizabeth I gave England a period of much needed stability. She was an absolute queen. Parliament lost all its power. She manipulated procedures to make appropriations of money seem like voluntary grants of the people’s representatives. 5.- James I: When Elizabeth died in 1603, she left no direct heir. The nearest relative was her cousin, James I of Scotland. Jame´s accession to the English throne united the crowns of Scotland and England, and was the first to call himself king of Great Britain. ----
Lesson 4.- Absolutism in France.
The rise of absolutism in France followed a course similar to that of England. French rulers had to contend with a Huguenot opposition. However, there was one difference: England enjoyed geographical isolation that protected her against invasion. France faced constant threat of invasion. French absolutism evolved gradually. Kings introduced new taxation to support a standing army and were able to reduce the nobles` power. The nobles were gradually reduced to the level of courtiers, dependent on the king for their titles and prestige. The trend towards absolutism was interrupted in the sixteenth century. France became involved in a war with Spain and an internal struggle. A civil war between the Huguenots and the Catholics contested which group would control the throne. The nobles took advantage of the confusion to reassert their powers. 1.- Wars of Religion: France was divided by religious differences between the Huguenots or French Calvinists; the Catholics, who wanted Catholicism as the only national religion; and the Politiques, Catholics who were more interested in politics than in religion.
Although the Huguenots were allowed to practice without persecution after 1560, France remained officially Catholic. Attempting to unite France, the Queen Mother Catherine arranged a marriage between her Catholic daughter and the leader of the French Huguenots, king Henry of Navarre. However, during the wedding a Huguenot leader was killed. To prevent a Protestant rebellion, Catherine decided to attack and ten thousand of Protestants were killed. It was called the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew.
After several years of bloodshed, Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France in 1589. 2.- Henry IV: After, Henry III assassination without direct heir, Henry of Navarre declared himself king. However, French Catholics and Philip II of Spain refused to recognize him. Henry had to fight, with help from England, for four more years. Finally, he became Catholic to restore peace and secure the throne. He was crowned Henry IV in 1594, thus beginning the Bourbon dynasty. He didn’t forget the Huguenots and issued the Edict of Nantes which gave freedom of worship and political rights to the Huguenots. France became the first country to allow more than one religious group. Henry concentrated on taking away powers from nobility and rebuilding France. He promoted agriculture and public works. When Henry IV was assassinated in 1610, his eight-year-old son became Louis XIII. Louis´ mother became regent but her policies brought disorder to France again. Disaster was prevented with the rise of Richelieu, who had been secretary of state, as chief minister of France. Richelieu was the real power behind Louis XIII.
Unit 4.- Rise of Modern Monarchies: the Hispanic Empire, Absolutism in England and in France.
Lesson 1.- The rise of the Spanish Empire: Charles V
1.- Charles V, personal background.
In 1516, Charles I became the king of Spain. He would become Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire.
Charles was born in Ghent (Gante) a Flemish city. He was the son of Philip I of Castile (Philip the handsome) and Juana of Castile (Joanna the Mad of Castile). His paternal grandparents were the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I and his wife, Mary of Burgundy. His maternal grandparents were Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs.
After his father’s death, he inherited the possessions of the German Habsburgs and the House of Burgundy: the Low Countries, the Franche-Comté (Franco Condado), and Flanders. As his mother was insane, after his grandparent death, he inherited the Crown of Castile which included the Americans possessions and the Crown of Aragon which consisted of Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. With this heritage, Charles built a hugest empire, known as the Hispanic Empire.
Charles was born and educated in Ghent, so the culture and courtly life of the Low Countries were an important influence in his early life. When, in 1516, he was proclaimed king of Castile and of Aragon jointly with her mother, he couldn’t speak Spanish. Charles arrived to Spain in 1517.
2.- The Revolt of the Comuneros:
When Charles came to Spain, he brought many Flemish noblemen with him and gave them the most important government posts. This angered Castilians noblemen.
When, in 1519, his grandparent Maximilian died, Charles became a natural candidate to the Holy Roman Crown. As he wanted to be emperor, he spent large amounts of Castilian money to bribe the electors and travelled to the empire to be elected. He left his Flamish noblemen to rule Castile and Aragon.
This situation angered both Castilian cities and Castilian nobles. The cities were annoyed about the new taxes which the urban bourgeoisie had to pay (to bribe the electors). The nobles were annoyed because the king gave the most important government positions to foreigners.
The cities, called “comunidades de villa y tierra”, started the Revolt of the Comuneros, and were initially supported by the nobles. The rebels were successful during the first months of the revolt. However, the king later came to an agreement with the Castilian nobles, and together they fought the rebels. The last battle was fought in Villalar (Valladolid) in 1521, and the king was victorious. The leaders of the revolt, Juan de Padilla, Juan Bravo and Francisco Maldonado, were executed.
However, the revolt led to a change in Charles V approach to his kingdom. He paid more attention to Castile. He appointed Castilian nobles to the highest government posts. And also spent more time there. Castile became integrated into the empire and would provide the bulk of the empire’s military and financial resources.
Charle`s created different Councils (Consejos) which advised the king on matters of Government. The most important was the Council of State but there were also a Council of Italy and a Council of Aragon.
3.- Charles´ V Empire
The empire of Charles V was made up of many different territories, with their own laws and institutions. Although Charles V did not have absolute power (decisions about taxes needed the approval of the Parliaments of each kingdom), the power of Spanish monarchs increased.
The court was itinerant, and the king travelled in person to problem territories. Each territory had a viceroy or governor, who ruled in the king’s name. There was also a court in each territory to administer justice.
Most of the emperor’s revenue came from taxes, specially from Castile. But taxes alone were not enough to finance his policies, and the emperor had to ask for loans.
Charles´ V idea of empire was to build a strong empire united by catholic religion. That’s why, during his forty year reign Charles became entangled in many wars:
a. France: was his main rival for supremacy in Europe. Both countries were at war during Charles´ V reign.
b. The Ottoman Turks: were constant threats in the Mediterranean and along the eastern boundary of the Holy Roman Empire.
c. German Protestant princes: Charles tried to stop the expansion of Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire. German princes used Lutheranism as a way to weaken the emperor’s power. Finally, the Treaty of Augsburg agreed that each prince had a right to choose the religion of his people.
5.- America:
During Charles´ V reign, the territories in America were considerably extended by conquistadors like Hernan Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who conquest the Aztec and Inca empires. Combined with the Magellan expedition’s circumnavigation of the globe in 1522, these successes provide the state treasury with enormous amounts of bullions.
The emperor treated America as an extension of Spain, and applied the same laws. Indians were considered Spanish citizens and the emperor also convened a conference at Valladolid to review the morality of the force used against the indigenous populations in which the use of excessive violence was forbidden.
He also created the Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias) which advised the king on matters of government. And the Casa de Contratacion which was in charge of trade with America.
The conquered territories were divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain in which a Viceroy ruled in the name of the emperor and the Viceroyalty of Peru, with his own viceroy.
Lesson 2.- The rise of the Hispanic Monarchy: Philip II.
1.- Philip’s II personal background:
In 1556, Charles V abdicated dividing his possessions: the Holy Roman Empire went to his brother, Ferdinand, and the Spanish possessions, the territories in Spain, America, Italy and Flanders to his son, Phillip II.
The empire of Phillip II was the most powerful of his time. It consisted of Spain, the Low Countries, a large part of Italy and other territories in Central Europe, plus the Castilian empire in the Americas and numerous possessions in North Africa and the Far East. Phillip’s II Empire was the largest the world has ever known.
Unlike his father, Charles V, king Phillip II ruled all his territories from Madrid, where he installed his court, because he considered Spain to be the centre of his monarchy, and specially Castile which still provided the bulk of the monarchy’s military and financial resources. For this reason, the reign of Phillip II is called the Hispanic Monarchy.
Phillip’s policies had two main objectives: to preserve his territories and to defend Catholicism. The king was a true believer but he also considered religion as a way to unite his subjects otherwise so different.
2.- Domestic policy:
As the chief defender of Catholicism, the king refused to give his subjects religious freedom and suppressed Protestantism within his kingdoms. The Inquisition acted harshly against heretics, and religious intolerance grew.
This damaged relations with the Low Countries in which Calvinism had spread, especially in Northern provinces. The situation got worse after several poor harvests, the interruption of trade because of the war with England, and a raise of taxes. In 1566, the Northern provinces rebelled against Phillip II and declared their independence under the name of the United Provinces. This is called the Revolt in the Low Countries. It was a long war that lasted Eighty years. Spanish troops quickly started fighting the rebels, but before the revolt could be completely defeated, a war between England and Spain had broken out, forcing Philip’s troops to halt their advance. The rebels obtained financial support from England. By the end of Philips reign he tried to solve the problem by giving the Low Countries to his daughter Isabel Clara Eugenia. If Isabel had any descendant the Low Countries would become independent.
During Phillip’s reign, the direct line of the Portuguese royal family ended when Sebastian of Portugal died. As the son of Isabella of Portugal, Phillip claim to the throne. After a short war, Phillip became king of Portugal in 1581. Thus, Philip added to his possessions a vast overseas empire in Africa, Brazil, and the East Indias.
3.- Foreign policy:
Phillip II was the most powerful king of his times, but he had to face many problems:
a. France: Philip inherited his father wars with France. Philip defeated the French at the start of his reign, but the conflict between the two countries started up again towards the end of his reign.
b. The Turks: The Turkish Empire threatened Spanish possessions in the Mediterranean. Spain, the Pope, and Venice formed an alliance and defeated the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto.
c. England: Before Charles´ V abdication, Phillip married Queen Mary of England, the older daughter of Henry VIII who, unlike his father, was a catholic. However, they had no children and Queen Mary died in 1558, before the union could revitalize the Catholic Church in England. The throne went to Elizabeth, the Protestant daughter of Henry VIII. After the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, the catholic great-niece of Henry VII and the legitimate heir to the throne for English Catholics, Philip decided to return England to Catholicism by invasion. His opportunity came when England provided support for the Low Countries revolt. King Philip sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, to lead an invasion. The fleet was lashed by severe storms. The lack of communication between the two commanders forced the army into retreat. Two more Armadas were assembled but also failed. Anyway, England was unable to take advantage of this success. English buccaneering in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain’s rebuilt navy.
5.- America:
Under Philip’s II reign, expeditions in America continued. New territories were conquered and became Spanish territories.
A lot of Spaniards travelled to America where they occupied the highest positions in the Indies. Criollos, the children of Spaniards in America occupied the second highest positions in society. Mestizos, the children of Spanish men and Native American Woman were not always well considered.
Indians performed manual work, largely in agriculture. Negroes were in the worst situation. They were slaves brought form Africa by English, French or Dutch traders and bought by Spanish to do the hardest work. They had no rights at all.
4.- Economy:
Charles´ V wars and the policies of Philip II further burdened Spanish economy and would, in the following century, contribute to its decline. The king had to ask for loans. Inflation throughout Europe in the sixteenth century didn’t help. Due to the situation, Phillip II was forced to declare bankruptcy several times.
Lesson 3: Absolutism in England
1.- Henry VIII:
Henry married Anne Boleyn but had a daughter, Elizabeth. He accused Anne of adultery and beheaded her.
Then, Henry married to Jane Seymour, who died shortly after giving birth to a son, Edward,
A fourth marriage to Anne of Cleves, a political alliance, ended shortly by annulment. Catherine Howard, Henry’s fifth wife, was also accused of adultery and beheaded. Only his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, outlived Henry.
Before dying, Henry established the line of succession. The crown was to pass first to Edward VI, then to Mary I, and finally to Elizabeth I.
2.- Edward VI:
Only nine years old when he inherited the English crown in 1547, Edward VI was a sickly youngster. A council of regents was established to help him. And a lord protector was established to rule the country.
During his reign, England suffered financial problems and religious problems. Unemployment, displaced populations, rising prices, and increased crime occurred.
Edward VI was afflicted with tuberculosis and was going to die so the lord protector tried to claim the throne. Mary, the son of Catherine of Aragon, called together an army of supporters and after Edward’s death, was crowned queen.
3.- Mary I:
Mary’s childhood had been desperately unhappy. Her parents had divorced, she was separated from her mother and persecuted in various ways for being devoutly catholic in times of Protestant domination. Mary was convinced she should restore Catholicism to England as the state religion.
She also married Philip of Spain, the son of Charles V. Mary persuade Parliament to restore papal authority and began active persecution of Protestant heretics. Because of this persecution she became known as “Bloody Mary”
After Queen Mary’s death in 1558, Elizabeth came to the throne.
4.- Elizabeth I:
Elizabeth, Anne Boleyn’s daughter, was a well-qualified person. He inherited the throne as well as a civil war and several other problems. Elizabeth knew foreign involvement cost money, so she carefully avoided it. Elizabeth aid the Spanish Low Countries in their rebellion against he Spanish.
Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland, claimed the English throne on the grounds that Henry VIII had not been married to Elizabeth’s mother in the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church. Mary claimed her right through Henry’s sister Margaret. She also had married Francis who would become king of France. France and Spain tried to help Mary claim the English throne. But she couldn’t. Finally, Mary was beheaded for her involvement in a plot against Elizabeth’s life.
Philip II of Spain sent the “Invincible Armada” to avoid English interference in the Netherlands, also as a religious crusade, and to stop English interference with America trade. The ships were destroyed by storms in the North.
By defeating the Armada, England remained independent and protestant.
Elizabeth I gave England a period of much needed stability. She was an absolute queen. Parliament lost all its power. She manipulated procedures to make appropriations of money seem like voluntary grants of the people’s representatives.
5.- James I:
When Elizabeth died in 1603, she left no direct heir. The nearest relative was her cousin, James I of Scotland. Jame´s accession to the English throne united the crowns of Scotland and England, and was the first to call himself king of Great Britain.
----
Lesson 4.- Absolutism in France.
The rise of absolutism in France followed a course similar to that of England. French rulers had to contend with a Huguenot opposition. However, there was one difference: England enjoyed geographical isolation that protected her against invasion. France faced constant threat of invasion.
French absolutism evolved gradually. Kings introduced new taxation to support a standing army and were able to reduce the nobles` power. The nobles were gradually reduced to the level of courtiers, dependent on the king for their titles and prestige. The trend towards absolutism was interrupted in the sixteenth century. France became involved in a war with Spain and an internal struggle. A civil war between the Huguenots and the Catholics contested which group would control the throne. The nobles took advantage of the confusion to reassert their powers.
1.- Wars of Religion:
France was divided by religious differences between the Huguenots or French Calvinists; the Catholics, who wanted Catholicism as the only national religion; and the Politiques, Catholics who were more interested in politics than in religion.
Although the Huguenots were allowed to practice without persecution after 1560, France remained officially Catholic. Attempting to unite France, the Queen Mother Catherine arranged a marriage between her Catholic daughter and the leader of the French Huguenots, king Henry of Navarre. However, during the wedding a Huguenot leader was killed. To prevent a Protestant rebellion, Catherine decided to attack and ten thousand of Protestants were killed. It was called the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew.
After several years of bloodshed, Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France in 1589.
2.- Henry IV:
After, Henry III assassination without direct heir, Henry of Navarre declared himself king. However, French Catholics and Philip II of Spain refused to recognize him. Henry had to fight, with help from England, for four more years. Finally, he became Catholic to restore peace and secure the throne. He was crowned Henry IV in 1594, thus beginning the Bourbon dynasty.
He didn’t forget the Huguenots and issued the Edict of Nantes which gave freedom of worship and political rights to the Huguenots. France became the first country to allow more than one religious group.
Henry concentrated on taking away powers from nobility and rebuilding France. He promoted agriculture and public works.
When Henry IV was assassinated in 1610, his eight-year-old son became Louis XIII. Louis´ mother became regent but her policies brought disorder to France again. Disaster was prevented with the rise of Richelieu, who had been secretary of state, as chief minister of France. Richelieu was the real power behind Louis XIII.